Resource Guide for Educators

Over the past year, The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute has received many inquiries from educators about resources for addressing adoption with sensitivity in the school environment. This brochure has been prepared in response to those many requests. This brochure is meant to be used as a starting point in identifying educational resources. Members of the Institute's Practice Advisory committee graciously contributed information for this document and agreed to serve as experts to educators in the community. Printed resources such as training manuals and journal articles written for education professionals have been identified. A select list of training centers and independent consultants are provided as well. For those interested in reading more about the research outcomes for adopted children in the academic setting an annotated bibliography is included.

Training Manuals
Out of Print Training Manuals
Training Centers
Professional Consultants
Journal Articles
Bibliography
  Academic Outcomes
  Internationally Adopted Children
  Children's Understanding of Adoption
  Studies Conducted in Other Countries

Training Manuals
Hilborn, Robin. "Adoption Helper's Teacher's Guide to Adoption." Adoption Helper Magazine, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Canada. 1998.
A practical guide for Elementary Educators.

Dellisanti, Georgine. "Teaching Children from Complex Backgrounds". Washington, D.C.: The Washington Post-Adoption Project, Adoption Resource Center, Children's Home Society of Washington, 1994.

This manual summarizes ways in which teachers can broaden understanding of the needs of adopted children, teach creatively and skillfully handle behaviors in the classroom. The manual is divided into two sections. Section one focuses on the issues of sensitivity to family diversity for the child who has joined their family through adoption at any age. Section two focuses specifically on the impact of multiple loss, abuse and neglect on children.

To order copies contact:
Rebecca Perbix Mallos
Children's Home Society of Washington
8011 118th Ave., N.E.
Kirkland, WA 98033
425-889-8524 ext. 7

Garanzini, Michael J. Child-Centered, "Family-Sensitive Schools: An Educator's Guide to Family Dynamics". Washington, D.C.: National Catholic Educational Association, 1995.

This book seeks to make teachers and administrators more knowledgeable about the varieties of students' family structures and shows them how to be more adept at managing the effects of family systems as they impact the child, the classroom and the school. In chapter eight, case studies are used to examine some of the psychological issues that exist in adoptive families.

To order copies contact:
National Catholic Educational Association
POB 0227
Washington, DC 20055
202-337-6232

Piantanida, M.; Anderson, S.; and Giannotta, V. "Focus on Adoption: The Role of School Personnel in Supporting Adoptive Families". Pittsburgh, PA.: Three Rivers Adoption Council, 1990.

This monograph advocates greater collaboration among parents, school personnel and adoption professionals and addresses numerous adoption issues at school and support strategies for educators.

To order copies send $3.00 to
Sally Lawry
Program Assistant
Three Rivers Adoption Council
307 Fourth Ave., Suite 710
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
412-271-8722

Melina. L. "The Best of Adopted Child: Issues Children Face in School".

Spiral-bound collection of 10 back issues of the Adopted Child newsletter. Each issue highlights a school theme such as: 1) Teachers need to be more sensitive to adoption issues, 2) Children learn about differences by teasing, 3) Different approaches taken to dealing with adoption in schools, 4) Adoptees may be at risk for hyperactivity, but no one knows why, 5) Guidelines given for classroom presentations on adoption, 6) Ways to teach racial tolerance in classrooms outlined, 7) Do homework before sending non-English-speaking child to school, 8) Attitudes toward academics - Adoptive parents more anxious, 9) Children with learning disabilities need help understanding adoption, and 10) Stronger role for genetics gaining support in adoption.

To order the bound volume send $15.00 to:
Lois Melina
Adopted Child
POB 9362
Moscow ID 83843
208-882-1694

National Association of School Social Workers. "Teacher and Administrator Handout" Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School Social Workers.

This handout gives a brief history of adoption and explains that adoption is not a "single event," but a lifelong process. Discusses how curriculum can be modified to be sensitive to adoption issues, how important positive adoption language is and lists adoption resources for parents and educators. "Adopted Children at School" and "Children and Adoption" are two additional fact sheets that present theory and research on adopted children's developmental, psychosocial and behavioral issues. They also look at family issues and at areas in which school personnel can enhance successful adoptions.

To order contact:
National Association of School Social Workers
8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1000,
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 608-0500

Out of Print Training Manuals
(Note: These publications are out of print but may be available from your local library.)

Monserrat, Catherine Paschal and Lindsay, Jeanne W. "Adoption Awareness: A Guide for Teachers, Counselors, Nurses, and Caring Others". Buena Park, CA: Morning Glory Press, 1990.

Nancy Sheehan Ng and Lansing Wood. "Adoption and the Schools Project -- vol. 1: A Manual for Parents Educating the Educators". Minneapolis, Minnesota: Families Adopting in Response and The North American Council on Adoptable Children, 1993.

Nancy Sheehan Ng and Lansing Wood. "Adoption and the Schools Project -- vol. 2: Understanding Adoption a Guide for Educators". Minneapolis, Minnesota: Families Adopting in Response and The North American Council on Adoptable Children, 1993.

This Ng and Wood series is highly recommended by many adoption professionals but is unfortunately out of print.

Training Centers

The Center for Adoption Support and Education, Inc
11120 New Hampshire Ave., Suite 205
Silver Spring, Maryland 20904
301-593-9200
Contact: Marilyn Schoettle

S.A.F.E. at School: Support for Adoptive Families by Educators is an education program that outlines what educators need to know about the adoptive child and offers strategies and suggestions for an adoption-sensitive school.

Adoption Resource Center
Spence-Chapin Services to Families & Children
6 east 94th St.
New York, New York 10128
212-369-0300
Contact: Ronny Diamond

Adoption Awareness for Educators, a training workshop developed by the Adoption Resource Center of Spence-Chapin, helps educators understand the diverse adoption experiences of today's families and their school-aged children. Among the topics covered are how children understand adoption at different ages, positive adoption language, and appropriate books for the school library.

Professional Consultants

Child & Family Development Services
Carol Dolber McMurray, MSW, ACSW
1915 Floyd Ave.
Richmond, VA 23220
804-278-9786

Distributes training packages on the following topics: "School and Adoption: Issues and Relationships" "Adoption Issues Relevant to other Children Whose Families have Changed" and "Working with Schools".

Sylvia McDaniel
World Association for Children & Parents
POB 88948
Seattle, WA 98138
206-575-4650

Rebecca Perbix Mallos
8011 118th Ave., N.E.
Kirkland, WA 98033
425-889-8542 ext. 7

The Attachment Center offers a training manual for teachers and in person training for school personnel.

Marilyn St. Germaine
Indigenous National Child & Family Agency
405 -14th St., Suite #162
Oakland, CA 94612
510-645-1430

Anne Brodzinsky, Ph.D.
15 Village Plaza Ste 1D
South Orange, NJ 07079
973-762-3860

Joyce Maguire Pavao, Ed.D.
Director
Center for Family Connections
P.O. Box 383246
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02238-3246
(617)547-0909
Fax (617)497-5952 or (617)547-5308
e-mail: kinnect@aol.com

Journal Articles

Essa, E. L., and O'Neil, L. "The School and Transracially Adopted Children." Educational Leadership (1989): 77-79.

Kirby, K. M. "A School Counselor's Guide to Working with Children Adopted After Infancy: Jason's Story." Elementary School Guidance and Counseling v 31, n 3 (February 1997): 226.

Kizner, Lori Riefberg, and Kizner, Scott R. "Small Group Counseling with Adopted Children."  Professional School Counseling  v 2, n3 (February 1, 1999): 226.

Meese, Ruth Lyn. "Teaching Adopted Children with Disabilities: What Teachers Need to Know."  Intervention in School and Clinic    v 34, n 4 (March 1999): 232.

Meyer, P. "Teachers, How Sensitive Are You to Adoption Issues?" Roots and Wings v 7, n 2 (Fall 1995): 8-12.

Rathbun, A. "FAS and FAE Children in the Classroom: Implications for Teaching." Roots and Wings (Winter 1991): 21-22.

Wardle, F. "Endorsing Children's Differences: Meeting the Needs of Adopted Minority Children." Young Children v 45, n 5 (July 1990): 44-46.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Several longitudinal studies of school-aged adopted children consider academic outcomes among other adjustment indicators. The findings have been mixed in terms of educational achievement. Overall, indications are that while there may be differences in academic achievement between adopted children and biological children the differences are slight. Some studies report that adopted children have higher levels of academic achievement than children raised in disrupted family units.

Academic Outcomes

Barth, R. P., and Needell, B. "Outcomes for Drug-Exposed Children Four Years Post- Adoption." Children and Youth Services Review v 18, n 1-2 (1996): 37-56.

Approximately four years after adoption, the researchers conducted a follow up study of three groups of children: 220 prenatally drug-exposed, 201 nondrug-exposed, and 587 drug exposure unknown. These same groups of children were first studied at the age of two years; they were at the time of the study, on average, 76 months (drug-exposed) and 59 months (nondrug-exposed). Key findings were that in areas such as good health and positive school performance (grades, enjoyment of school, disobedience, or trouble getting along with teachers), the drug exposed and the nondrug-exposed groups were equal. On the Behavior Problem Inventory, only the hyperactivity subscale showed higher scores for the drug-exposed children under the age of six.

Bronstein, P.; et al. "Parenting Behavior and Children's Social, Psychological, and Academic Adjustment in Diverse Family Structures." Family Relations v 42, n 3 (July 1993): 268-76.

One hundred and thirty-six children between the ages of 9 and 12 years participated in this longitudinal survey designed to study the transition to middle school. Self report instruments were used to gather information from both the parents and children. Data on children's functioning in school were obtained from teachers, classmates, and school records. Overall, children in intact families, whether biological or adoptive, tended to show higher levels of adjustment.

Caruso, W. P. "The Psychoeducational Adjustment of the Adoptee: Its Implications for School Psychology Practice and Special Education Delivery Service." Ed.D. diss., Fairleigh Dickinson University, 1987.

A mail questionnaire was sent to 322 randomly selected members of the National Association of School Psychologists. The questions sought information about level and frequency of nonrelative adoptees in special education settings. This study found that 29 percent of the school psychologists reported observations of over-representation of nonrelative adoptees in special education settings. Coon, H.; et al. "Influences of School Environment on the Academic Achievement Scores of Adopted and Nonadopted Children." Intelligence 17, no. 1 (1993): 79-104.
In this study of first-grade children, measures of school environment included attending a private versus a public school, traditional versus nontraditional methods, type of discipline, fairness, and competitiveness. Several of these variables, in addition to measures of children's attitudes about school, showed direct environmental associations with reading and math achievement independent of the effects of parental IQ. For both reading and math achievement, nonadopted children performed better than adopted children; however, differences were very slight. Strong discipline was associated with lower reading achievement for both adopted and nonadopted girls.

Cyphers, L. H. et al. "Cognitive Abilities in the Early School Years: No Effects of Shared Environment Between Parents and Offspring." Intelligence 13, no. 4 (1989): 369-86.

Specific cognitive abilities were compared for biological, adoptive, and nonadoptive parents and their 163 adopted and 142 nonadopted children tested at 7 years of age. Model- fitting analyses supported the hypothesis of significant genetic influence on verbal and spatial abilities but not on perceptual speed and memory. The results imply the existence of some genetic continuity from the early school years to adulthood for verbal and spatial abilities. In addition, genetic influence of parents on their children appears to increase from early childhood to middle childhood, accounting for about 25 percent of the variance of verbal and spatial abilities at seven years. In contrast, environmental resemblance between parents and offspring were found to be nonsignificant for all four specific cognitive abilities as well as for a composite score representing general cognitive ability. Such shared environmental influence between parent and child accounts for less than one percent of the variance at seven years.

Feigelman, W. "Adopted Adults: Comparisons with Persons Raised in Conventional Families." In Families and Adoption, edited by H. E. Gross and M. B Sussman, p. 199-223. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, 1997.

Using subjects drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth, this study compares and contrasts the outcomes of three groups -- 101 adoptees raised by both adoptive parents, nonadopted children raised in all other types of attenuated nuclear families, and children raised until age 18 by both biological parents. Those raised in all types of disrupted nuclear families clearly showed the lowest levels of academic achievement, job status, and marital stability. The key findings from this study indicate that adoptees may have had more problems during adolescence than those raised by two biologic parents; however, adoptees showed much less clear evidence of long-term difficulties.

Sharma, A.; McGue M.; and Benson P. L. "The Psychological Adjustment of U.S. Adopted Adolescents and Their Nonadopted Siblings." Child Development v 69, n 3 (June 1998): 791- 802.

Adopted adolescents and birth adolescents were compared using several standardized instruments. The two groups were also compared with a normative sample. Overall, adoptees tended to show higher levels of delinquent behavior, illicit drug use, and poorer school adjustment. The adoptees demonstrated better functioning in handling social problems than their nonadopted siblings and the normative group.

Stevenson, T. N. F. "Academic Self-Esteem within an Adoptee Population: An Examination of Academic Self-Esteem and Adoptee Academic Success." Ph.D. diss., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 1993.

Survey questionnaires completed by 82 adoptees between the ages of 11 and 17 were examined to determine the relationship between adoptive status, academic self-esteem, and academic achievement. Fifty-seven adoptees were in regular classes, 18 were classified as learning disabled, and 7 were identified as SBH. The type of placing agency, multiple placements, and gender and racial identity were not significantly related to adoptee academic self-esteem or special learner classification. It was determined by the researcher that the sample was too homogenous to allow expected differences to emerge.

Scarr, S. and Weinberg R. A. "Educational and Occupational Achievements of Brothers and Sisters in Adoptive and Biologically Related Families." Behavior Genetics 24, no. 4 (1994): 301- 25.

This article reports on the findings from the fourth follow-up study of a group of 450 biologically related and adopted young adults. IQ measures, high school tests scores, and class rank were obtained for the participants, as well as IQ scores, income, education and occupational status of parents. Three primary findings emerged from the study: 1. Biological sons are more influenced by their family background than daughters, regardless of biological or adoptive status; 2. Young women's later achievements are not as predictable from their earlier achievements as those of their brothers; 3. Regardless of level of demonstrated achievement of sons, parents invest more in their educational futures than they do in their daughters. The researchers concluded that test scores, high school performance, postsecondary education, and occupational status can be influenced by genetic variability in personal characteristics that affect such achievements.

Schechtman, J. L. "A Comparison of Adoptees' and Non-Adoptees' Experience of Mid-to- Late Adolescence." Ph.D. diss., Massachusetts School for Professional Psychology, 1990.

A group of adopted (N=6) and nonadopted (N=7) females were compared in the areas of family relationships, school achievement, and other relationships. No differences were found between the two groups.

Young, R. A. "Adopted Children in the U.S.: Their Health Needs and Use of Health Services." Ph.D. diss., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1991.

This research examined data from the 1981 National Health Interview Survey Child Health Supplement to compare the physical and developmental needs and use of health services of adopted children (N=358) with those of nonadopted children (N=1,506). The primary findings indicated that adopted children were more likely than nonadopted children to have chronic conditions, one or more overnight hospitalizations, one or more inpatient operations, and correctable eye conditions. Adopted children were more likely to have used mental health services and to have had academic difficulties. Adolescent adoptees were more likely to have behavioral problems.

Internationally Adopted Children
The internationally adopted child in the classroom may challenge perceptions held about diversity issues and may come to the classroom with low level English language skills.

Dore, E. D. "Identifying Similarities and Differences Among Young Adolescents Who Have Been Transracially Adopted: A Set of Case Studies." Ph.D. diss., University of Northern Colorado, 1995.

To examine similarities and differences among transracial adoptees, nine transracial adoptees were interviewed, as well as their families, teachers and counselors. The adoptees were of Korean, Native American, Hispanic and other mixed ethnicities. Experiences during their middle school years were the primary focus of the interviews even though some of the adoptees were in their twenties at the time of the investigation. There was a tendency for teachers and counselors to focus on the children's racial identity rather than on individual accomplishments.

Friedman-Kessler, L. "The Measurement of Teachers' Attitudes toward Adopted Children." Ph.D. diss., The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, California, 1987.

The researcher asked 121 Caucasian female teachers to evaluate the behavior, personality and intentionality of a child described in a vignette. Half of the children were identified as being adopted. The study found that the severity of the wrongdoing of the child in the vignette was the most important factor which affected the teacher's judgement of the child's behavior, personality traits, intentionality, and the designated punishment. However, the researcher found adoption effected to varying degrees the teachers' determination of the child's attractiveness, aggressiveness, callousness, disagreeableness, and how intense the punishment should be.

Huh, N. S. "Korean Children's Ethnic Identity Formation and Understanding of Adoption." Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1997.

Forty adopted Korean children between the ages of 9 and 14 and their adoptive parents were interviewed. A key finding was that school played a major role in enhancing a child's ethnic identity. Children with parents who encouraged open communication about adoption had fewer questions about birthparents than those children in families with closed communication.

Politte, J. "Self-Esteem Among Korean Adopted Preadolescents." Ph.D. diss., Walden University, 1993.

Self-esteem in the areas of academics, athletics, physical appearance, and behavior was measured in 64 Korean adopted preadolescents and their Caucasian siblings. Results from the group were then compared to a normative sample, and a group of other transracial adoptees. Significant findings were that having another Korean adopted sibling improved the children's self-concepts in academic and social competence, and that being teased about being Korean decreased self-concept in social acceptance. However, teasing was rarely reported. Self-esteem was not effected by efforts to preserve cultural heritage in the home. Children who doubted the appropriateness of race mixing had lower self-esteem in all areas. Overall, the Korean adoptees demonstrated higher mean scores than normative groups on five subscales, particularly in global self-worth.

Robinette, N. D. "English Language Acquisition of Adopted Children from the Philippines and Latin America." Ed. D. The University of Tennessee, 1997.

The study sought to determine differences in English language acquisition attributable to gender, age on arrival, and region of origin. The sample for the study consisted of 108 children who were adopted from the Philippines and Latin America. The children in this study were grouped according to their gender, age on arrival (Group I - birth to 17 months, Group II - 18 months to four years, Group III - five years and up), and region of origin (Philippines and Latin America). The major conclusions were as follows: (1) early malnutrition and chronic ear infections had an influence on language acquisition and later academic performance in school; (2) children who were adopted prior to 18 months of age learned English as their native language; (3) children from different language backgrounds learned English as a second language at the same rate and with the same success; (4) children who were adopted often did not go through a silent period that is characteristic of other second language learners; (5) the time required before non-family members understood the adopted child varied from one to six months. (6) the age on arrival was an important factor in second language acquisition; and (7) older children (five years and up) received services from ESL teachers more often than younger children.

Schwethelm, B. "The Adjustment of Latin American Children Adopted at an Older Age and Their Families to Adoption: A Natural Experiment of the Role of Early Experience." Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1989.

Seventy-six children from 25 two-parent and 13 single-parent adoptive families were compared with a nonadopted group on measures of cognitive, academic, and social development. Overall, the adopted children as a group scored below the norm on intellectual and academic tasks. Variability, however, was high with some children achieving at or above the norm.

Children's Understanding of Adoption
What children understand about the concept of adoption and at what chronological age are they able to understand it is relevant to the curriculum material presented. Most studies indicate that while children ages 4- 6 may be able to tell their own adoption story they do not understand what the word "adoption" means.

Pickar, J. L. "Children's Understanding of Parenthood." Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1986.

The researcher interviewed 120 elementary school children to ascertain their understanding of biological ties as a feature of parenthood. Marriage is the primary means used to define parenthood by kindergarteners and second graders. By sixth grade the blood tie is used as a defining feature with near unanimity. The author concludes, based on his study, that it is likely that younger adoptive children may more easily allow relationships with their adoptive family to develop. As blood ties become more meaningful, their adoptive status may become more troublesome to them.

Spector, J. "Adoptive Status and Level of Thinking about Adoption in 5-13 Year Old Children." Ph.D. diss., Adelphi University, School of Social Work, 1986.

Sixty adopted and nonadopted children were assessed regarding their thinking about adoption and their thinking about a neutral subject. The study and control group were mainly Caucasian, upper-middle-class, American born children. No significant differences appeared between the two groups' level of thinking about either adoption or the neutral subject. The adopted children did exhibit a higher level of thinking about adoption than thinking about the neutral subject. The nonadopted children did not show any difference in thinking about the two topics.

Newman, J. L.; Roberts, L. R.; and Syre, C. R. "Concepts of Family Among Children and Adolescents: Effect of Cognitive Level, Gender, and Family Structure." Developmental Psychology v 29, n 6 (1993): 951-62.

One hundred and twenty subjects ranging in age from 4 to 20+ years were assessed to determine the effects of age, cognitive level, gender, and family structure on their definitions of family, divorce, and adoption. Age and cognitive level were found to contribute to the understanding of adoption. Children in the four to six year old age range demonstrated no understanding of the difference between adoption and birth. Seven to nine year olds showed a naive understanding of the legal permanence of adoption. Females in all age ranges demonstrated a clearer understanding of the legal concepts related to adoption than did males.

Leddick, C. W. "Concepts of Family Among Special Needs Adoptees." Ph. D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1996.

Fifteen adopted special needs children between the ages of 8 and 11, who had been in their homes for less than a year were compared with 15 nonadopted children regarding their concepts of family. When examined, quantitatively few differences were found between the two groups on their concepts of family and concepts of adoption. When examined qualitatively, some between group differences emerged. The adopted children held a broader view of adoption and family than the nonadopted group.

Springer, K. "Young Children's Understanding of a Biological Basis for Parent-Offspring Relations." Child Development v 67, n 6 (December 1996): 2841-56.

The purpose of this study was to determine if preschoolers understood the role of kinship in relation to physical resemblance among family members. The study found that the preschoolers expected adopted babies to resemble their biological parents instead of their adoptive ones; however, they did not expect them to share beliefs or likes and dislikes of their biological parents.

Solomon, G. E., et al. "Like Father, Like Son: Young Children's Understanding of How and Why Offspring Resemble their Parents." Child Development v 67, n 1 (February 1996): 151-71.

Four experiments were conducted to examine whether or not 48 preschoolers understood biological inheritance. The key finding from this study was that it was not until age 7 that children substantially connected physical traits with biological fathers and beliefs with adoptive fathers.

Johnson, S. C., and Solomon, G. E. "Why Dogs Have Puppies and Cats have Kittens: The Role of Birth in Young Children's Understanding of Biological Origins." Child Development v 68, n 3 (June 1997): 404-19.

This study determined that five-year-olds could reliably judge traits that would be specific to biological parents rather than adoptive parents.

Studies Conducted in Other Countries
Andresen, I. L. K. "Behavioral and School Adjustment of 12-13-Year Old Internationally Adopted Children in Norway: A Research Note." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 33, no. 2 (1992): 427-39.

The purpose of this study was to examine the adjustment of 12-13- year old adopted children (N=151) to their new families and to school; to compare the school adjustment of the adopted children to that of nonadopted children of the same age; and to make comparisons between different groups of adopted children. The majority of the intercountry adoptees were from Korea, female and older than 1 1/2 years when adopted. Overall, the adopted children were found to be well adjusted. In comparison with nonadopted children, the adopted children were ranked as being more hyperactive. More adopted children had problems with arithmetic. No significant differences were found between children who were of different ages when adopted.

Lipman, E. L.; Offord, D. R.; Racine, Y. A.; and Boyle, M. H. "Psychiatric Disorders in Adopted Children: A Profile from the Ontario Child Health Study." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry v 37 (November 1992): 627-33.

Data from a Canadian community survey which included a subgroup of adoptive families was examined. Three major findings emerged: 1) Adoptive families did not differ from other families except that the mother was usually older than mothers in nonadoptive families; 2) For boys, adoption was a significant marker for psychiatric disorder and poor academic performance; and 3) For adolescent girls, adoptive status was a marker for substance use.

Lipman, E. L. et al. "Follow-Up of Psychiatric and Educational Morbidity Among Adopted Children." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32, no. 5 (1993): 1007-12.

This longitudinal study examined the association between adoptive status and psychiatric and educational morbidity and substance abuse. The study group consisted of a subset of 104 adopted children identified from the 1983 Ontario Child Health Study. At this follow-up, the children were 8- to 20- years old. Overall, the study found that adopted children did not have worse outcomes over time for either school performance or substance use; however, adopted boys demonstrated a significantly increased risk of psychiatric disorder in comparison with nonadopted boys.

Schiff, M.; Duyme, M.; Dumaret, A. C.; and Tomkiewicz, S. "How Much Could We Boost Scholastic Achievement and IQ Scores?" In Education and Class: The Irrelevance of IQ Genetic Studies, edited by Michel Schiff and Richard Lewontin, 37-124. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1986.

A comprehensive overview of the French Adoption Studies, which were conducted between 1972 and 1977, is given. The study sample consisted of three groups, a group of 32 adopted children, a group of 20 children reared by their biological parents (most were half siblings of the adopted group) and a comparison group of children in the general population. A key concern for the investigators was to identify children for the study for whom there was a stark difference between the socioeconomic status of the biological parents and that of the adoptive parents. Overall, the researchers findings point to the contributions made by social class to academic success. The three groups were compared in the areas of school achievement, group IQ test scores and individual IQ test scores. For the adopted group, four out of 32 children had encountered academic difficulties as compared to 24 out of 39 of the children reared by their biological mothers who had experienced either failure of a grade or placement in a remedial class. On IQ scores, the two groups' general averages differed greatly. When the adopted children were compared to the same aged, same social class children from the general population, their position in the school system and their IQ scores were similar.

Duyme, M. "School Success and Social Class: An Adoption Study." Developmental Psychologyv 24, n 2 (March 1988): 203-9.

Rate of school failure was examined in three groups of adopted adolescents divided by socioeconomic class. The key finding was that the rate of school failure is similar for adopted and biological children from the same social class. In upper class families, the adopted children demonstrated a slightly lower level of academic success than biological children from upper class families.

Hoksbergen, R. A.C.; Juffer, F.; and Waardenburg, B. C. "Adopted Children at Home and at School: The Integration After 8 Years of 116 Thai Children in the Dutch Society." Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger B. V. , 1987.

The parents and teachers of 116 children adopted from Thailand participated in this Dutch study. Teachers completed the School Behavior Assessment List (SCHOAL) and a questionnaire designed by the researchers. The SCHOAL measures four factors: Frankness, Attitude towards Work, Social Contact and Emotionality. Adopted girls were scored lower than adopted boys and far below their female classmates on the Frankness measure. The researchers concluded that in regard to Frankness, the adopted group did not have a problem. In the measure of Emotionality, the adopted children were rated in the average range. Overall, the adopted group scored in the average range on Attitude towards Work. Very positive scores in Social Contact were reported for the adopted group. Teachers were more likely to hold a positive view of the child's academic progress than were parents. The authors concluded that overall, the adopted children were doing better than the average Dutch child in the area of socio-emotional behavior at school.

Verhulst, F. C.; Althaus, M.; and Versluis-den Bieman, H. J. M. "Problem Behavior in International Adoptees: I. An Epidemiological Study." Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescence and Psychiatry v 29, n 1 (1990): 94-103.

A total of 2,148 internationally adopted children between the ages of 10 to 15 living in the Netherlands participated in this study, which assessed emotional development, behavioral functioning, and achievements using the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist. The adopted children's scores were then compared to a same-age sample group of children from the general population. Based on parental responses to the Achenbach checklist, adopted children in this study exhibited more Externalizing behaviors than nonadopted children. The parents also gave adopted children lower scores in their social and academic functioning. Adopted children were reported to be more active in nonsports activities and to function better than nonadopted children in sports and other activities.
The authors also concluded that adopted children from lower socioeconomic classes showed better academic performance, were less often referred to special education classes, and had fewer other school problems than adopted children from higher socioeconomic classes. The authors suggest that this finding may reflect higher parental expectations.

Bohman, M., and Sigvardsson, S. "Outcome in Adoption: Lessons from Longitudinal Studies." In The Psychology of Adoption, edited by David M. Brodzinsky and Marshall D. Schechter, 93-106. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

The general purpose of this investigation was to determine which factors in the child, the adoptive family, or in the placement procedures contribute to the long-range outcome for adopted individuals. To date, the 624 study participants have been evaluated at ages 11, 15, 18, and 23. Three groups of children were compared: those placed in adoptive homes (N=168); those reared by their biological mothers (N=208); and those placed in permanent foster homes (N=203). Follow-up at age 11 found that the boys and girls in all three groups demonstrated more nervous and behavioral disturbances than their classmates. Teachers also experienced the subjects as more maladjusted, particularly the group in foster care.
When the three groups were reevaluated at age 15 the adopted group showed fewer signs of maladjustment than the foster care group or the group living with their biological mothers. At the age of 18, the adopted males' performances were no different than their age- matched peers in a series of medical, psychological, and social examinations required by the military. Among the adopted males, 18 percent were identified on a national register for criminality, alcohol abuse, or both, while none of the adopted girls were registered. Among the control groups, 15.5 percent were registered. The researchers concluded that adopted individuals are no more at risk for adverse outcomes than any other individuals in the general population, particularly when the adoptive family is well prepared for the task of rearing an unrelated child. The most recent studies of this group have involved confirmation of findings specific to two different types of alcoholism.

Berg-Kelly, K. and Eriksson J. "Adaptation of Adopted Foreign Children at Mid-Adolescence As Indicated by Aspects of Health and Risk Taking--A Population Study." European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 6, no. 4 (1997): 199-206.

Of 9,329 adolescents who participated in an epidemiological survey, 125 identified themselves as adopted. In comparison to the nonadopted group, intercountry adoptees self- reported early puberty and shortness of height. The proportion of adopted girls with suicidal thought was significantly larger when compared with the nonadopted group. Adopted females also reported school truancy, not using safety belts, sexual intercourse, unpleasant sexual encounters, and contact with illicit drugs more often than the controls.

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